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AFRICAN-AMERICAN SUCCESS FOUNDATION TUTT-JONES MEMORIAL RESEARCH GRANTParenting Practices Among Parents/Guardians of Academically Successful Fifth Grade African-American Children in High Poverty CommunitiesCirecie A. West-Olatunji, Ph. D. University of Florida Preliminary Report Submitted October 11, 2006 I. BACKGROUND In the summer of 2005, Dr. Cirecie West-Olatunji applied to the African-American Success Foundation for a Tutt-Jones Memorial Research Grant to conduct a study that focused on the effective parenting strategies of the parents/guardians of academically successful African-American fifth grade students. This grant proposal was accepted and Dr. West-Olatunji was awarded $2000.00 to fund the study. Dr. West-Olatunji currently serves as Assistant Professor of Counselor Education at the University of Florida. She is a nationally recognized presenter, trainer and author in the area of multicultural education and counseling. Internationally, she has provided consultation and training in Osaka, Hiroshima, Tottori, and Fukuoka cities in Japan in the area of culturally relevant anti-bias education for young children and most recently consulted with educators in Singapore. Cirecie West-Olatunji has provided educational consultation to a PBS children's television show on diversity through KCET-TV in Los Angeles, CA ("Puzzle Place"). Specifically, the principle investigator for this project has co-authored a book focused on transforming early childhood education to integrate culturally relevant practices (funded by Kellogg Foundation). Dr. West-Olatunji is particularly interested in the disproportionate placement of African-American children in special education. Much of her research dissemination reflects this work II. PROBLEM STATEMENT As early as third grade African-American students demonstrate significantly lower performance in reading, math, and science as compared to their white, Latino, and Asian/Pacific Islander peers (see Table 1).
Table 1
NOTE: From U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998-99 (ECLS-K), Third Grade Restricted Use Data File, spring 2002.
As a group, African American students constituted roughly 14.8% of public school enrollment in 1998 yet, compared to their white counterparts, were disproportionately identified and placed in categories such as mental retardation (18.9%), specific learning disability (45.2%), and emotional disturbance (10.7%) (NCES, 2001) (see Table 2). Disproportionality also permeates which children are identified and placed in programs for the gifted and talented in our nations’ public schools with African American students being half as likely to be represented in such programs as compared to their white peers (3.04% and 7.47%, respectively) (National Research Council, 2002). Table 2 Comparison of African American and White Students’ Special and Gifted Education Placement
NOTE: From, “In Racial/Ethnic distribution of public school students,” by the National Center for Education Statistics, 2001, Table 3-2A Percentage distribution of public school students enrolled in grades K-12 who were minorities, by region: October 1972-2000.
A related phenomenon for this population of students is disproportionate use of corporal punishment (Townsend, 2000). In 1998, African American students were subject to harsh discipline practices at disproportionate rates, such as suspension (21%), expulsion (23%), and corporal punishment (27%) (NCES, 2001). Studies indicate that most parents, regardless of socioeconomic status (SES), have high academic expectations for their children (Diamond & Gomez, 2004). Yet, some children are consistently under-performing. Low income and culturally diverse students continue to lag behind their middle-class and white counterparts in their academic progress (Bali & Alvarez, 2004). This disproportionality can be attributed to several factors, such as personal characteristics, schooling experiences, and parent involvement. III. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE There are several skill sets that effective parents utilize to promote academic achievement in their children. Oftentimes these skills sets are specific caregiver dispositions and behaviors that resemble Epstein’s (1995) framework of six types of parent involvement. More specific, parents that believe and have faith in their child’s potential to overcome academic challenges are more likely to succeed in school. Further, parent behaviors that demonstrate active support of the child’s educational growth and development through at-home learning activities, exposure to broader cultural and social contexts, can positively affect their achievement. However, various challenges can negatively affect parent’s proficiencies such as family stress, being a single parent, and school-related factors. There is an extensive amount of literature that discusses various parent behaviors that affect their child’s education. Research indicates that parents who participate in at-home learning activities such as creating physical environments to complete homework, engaging in homework tasks with their child or supporting their child’s understanding of the homework are logically related to proximal student outcomes such as attitudes, ideas, and behaviors about homework (Hoover-Dempsey, Battiato, Walker, Reed, DeJong & Jones, 2001). Low income parents might facilitate learning activities taught at school or seek help from an individual in the community to assist in schoolwork when they are not available to participate. Additional parent behaviors that affect children’s education include unsolicited visits to volunteer in the child’s classroom (Porter DeCusati & Johnson, 2004). Porter DeCusati & Johnson (2004) demonstrated that parents who volunteered in the classroom were linked positively with their child’s early reading development. Further, findings illustrated that parents that visited and participated in the classrooms had better reading skills than parents who did not participate. Feuerstein (2001) stated that some parents are eager to participate in the academic development of their children. However, school-related factors can encourage or discourage the amount and type of participation they display. Assessing school-related factors that can affect the relatively low involvement of African American families is necessary to create more positive parent-school relationships that can foster better outcomes for African American students who lag behind their White and Asian counterparts. However, research has not fully assessed this area due to an historical belief that schools actively try to elicit and desire parent support rather than act as a barrier to parent involvement. Literature suggests that there are numerous school-related factors that affect parent involvement. These factors include a cultural gap between African-American parents and the education system, attitudes and practices of teachers and the education system. African-American students often have a multi-layered set of obstacles to overcome in order to succeed in the school environment (Olatunji, 2000). First, socio-political conditions dictate the accessibility to educational materials, and resources as well as the aesthetics of the learning environment. Second, there are conflicts between the students' socially constructed knowledge and that of the school (Gordon, 1997; Ladson-Billings, 2005; Riojas-Cortez, 2001). The belief that education and knowledge are non-neutral terrains (King, 1997) is a focal point for debate among educators who theorize about the usefulness of multiculturalism in education. Banks (1998), Grant and Lei (2001), have long challenged traditional thought about the cultural hegemony that predominates the American curriculum. IV. RESEARCH METHOD This study is an investigation of the specific parent behaviors and attitudes that contribute to resilient and academically successful African-American school children. The focus of this study is to investigate the research question within the context of culturally appropriate practice. The researchers ask the question, “Is there a relationship between the specific parenting proficiencies shared by low-income African-American parents of academically successful children? And, if so, what is the nature of that relationship?” The overall goal of this research study is advance knowledge in the area of resiliency among African-American students by focusing on those socially constructed attitudes and behaviors stemming from their familial environment. Parents of African-American fifth grade students in the School Board of Alachua County (SBAC) school system who met the low-income criteria (free or reduced lunch form on record at the school), have a “B” average or better in school, and scored a 3 or better on the most recent Florida Comprehensive Achievement Test (FCAT) were recruited to participate in the study. Information on eligible candidates was generated from the SBAC database coordinated by the Office Of Guidance And Counseling Services. Parents (n=172) were recruited by telephone to participate in the study. The researchers randomly selected parents/guardians from the SBAC database for participation in a 90-minute focus group (n=5). The focus group was held at a local African-American church and facilitated by the PI and two graduate research assistants. Subsequently, the PI and the graduate research assistants conducted two 45-minute elite interviews with select members of the focus group based upon the salient comments provided. All participants were females (ages 26-45 years). The experimental method consisted of data collected from an audio- and videotaped focus group, and the audio- and videotaped interviews. Qualitative data from the focus group and interviews were analyzed using a qualitative software package (NVIVO, v.2.0) that generated dominant themes. The themes extracted were then examined by the research team and cross-referenced with researcher notes and comments created during the data collection phase. A subsequent quantitative analysis using the key items extracted from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten cohort (ECLS-K) parent interview schedule, a nationally representative dataset provided by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), will be conducted in October, 2006 using SPSS (v.12). These items will be based upon the key themes extracted from the qualitative analysis. Results will be disseminated in the form of a site-based report, manuscripts for submission to peer-reviewed journals, and presentations at regional and national conferences. V. PRELIMINARY RESULTS Results of the qualitative analysis of the focus group and interviews revealed four major themes: parenting behaviors, parenting style, spirituality, and parent types. Consistent with the literature, the participants believed that frequent communication with their child’s teacher was helpful in staying current with the demands of the classroom, peer dynamics, and raising teacher expectations about their child. All of the participants shared examples of the importance of developing a relationship with their child’s teachers, “You can call them and say, ‘my child is having problems on this essay, can you help? Can you tell me how to get it and explain it? Use that, that’s like gold.” Another parent stated, “I made arrangements to meet with each one of her teachers so they would know who I am and encourage them to call me.” Another parenting behavior was emphasizing the importance of education. One parent spoke of how she returned to school and received a degree in order to model for her children, “I…tell my children…to stay in school, get your high school diploma, go on to college and get something because knowledge is power.” Parents also talked about what they did in their homes to foster academic excellence. “We have down time before we have homework time.” “I bring home books, a whole list that they have to read…” Participants also talked about how they parented, exemplifying the authoritative style of parenting that is presented in the literature on the African-American parenting style encompassing discipline coupled with demonstrative caring (Mandara, 2006). One parent stated, “You got to tough love kids.” Another shared, “You set the boundaries, set the structure. You show that you support them that you care for them whichever way they go; it doe make them feel confident.” Participants also reflected on their parenting styles in relation to their parents, “I think my style is very much the same as my Mom.” “We can talk about anything.” Although the literature on parenting does not address the role of spirituality in parenting, the participants spoke often about their faith and its influence on their decision-making. In discussing what contributes to the success of her child – despite the adversity that they had experienced, one parent stated that, “I’m a faith-based household…I feel that God placed the right people in my life at that time.” Another parent stated, “I have a faith-based heart…trusting god helps you to see a lot, gives you wisdom.” In talking about how she deals with their teenage children or how survived her own teenage years, one participant stated, “…it’s hard to reach out to some people, so I reach to Jesus, with age comes the wisdom…had it not been for the grace of God, I don’t know where I’d be.” One participant spoke about how she experiences God, “There are children without any encouragement at home and see all kinds of things that children should never be involved in. These kids rise above that. That’s God.” Finally, the participants spoke about those parents who do not have successful children and talked about their lack of maturity and confidence. One parent shared her own growth experiences and said, “I’m a different parent now than I was with my 22-year old…When you are younger, you are wrestling with other people recognizing you as a mature adult and all. You don’t want to say, ‘I don’t know, help me’” Another participant described the other types of parents’ lifestyle, “You get pregnant, you get food stamps and a check and a apartment. There are full functioning people who have been repeating the cycle. Their mother was a teen parent, their grandmother was a teen parent for generations in one building.” Another participant reflected, “You are at an age so young, you’re emancipated. You say you have everything…surrounded by other people that have the same thing…. You tend to bond with the others that also feel judged, it’s important to approach it in a nonjudgmental way.” Central to the parents’ synergistic discussion during the focus group was an emphasis on sharing their testimonies, to testify to how they overcame the obstacles they each encountered in their lives that allow them to commit to their children’s education and development on a daily basis. They believed it was imperative that they, “…share with other parents our experiences and not act like we have it so together.” VI. DISCUSSION Most of the literature on African American parenting and student achievement has been deficit-oriented and has frequently misinterpreted cultural mores and assumptions that characterize the African-American culture (Mandara, 2006). The preliminary results of this study suggest that African American parents have coping mechanisms and demonstrate resilience despite systemic and personal stressors, such as poverty, oppression, death of a loved one, personal or family illness, and developmental obstacles. These coping mechanisms may be rooted in cultural patterns. For example, intergenerational support from grandparents, a strong faith in one’s self and one’s family members that is predicated upon a belief in God, and understanding the power of the spoken word as a force of healing were evident among the participants in the focus group and interviews. A subsequent quantitative analysis of a nationally representative sample of low-income parents of African-American elementary schools children with similar academic profiles , using the ECLS-K dataset, will assist in deepening the researchers’ knowledge of the parenting behaviors and dispositions that correlate with academic success for African-American children in high poverty schools. Preliminary results of this study suggest that there may be therapeutic value and educational import in testifying among African-American parents -- of both high and low achieving students -- about “how they make it through.” References Bali, V. A., & Alvarez, M. (2004). The race gap in student achievement scores: Longitudinal evidence from a racially diverse school district. The Policy Studies Journalism, 32, 393-415. Banks, J. A. (1998). The lives and values of researchers: Implications for educating citizens in a multicultural society. Educational Researcher, 27, 4-17. Diamond & Gomez (2004). African American parents educational orientations: The importance of social class and parents. Education & Urban Society, 26, 383-427. Epstein, J. L. (1995). School/family/community partnerships: Caring for children we share. Phi Delta Kappan, 76, 701-712. Feuerstein, A. (2001). School characteristics and parent involvement: Influences on participation in schools. Journal of Educational Research, 94, 29-39. Gordon, B. (1997). Curriculum policy and African American cultural knowledge: Challenges and possibilities for the year 2000 and beyond. Educational Policy, 11, 227-242. Grant, C. A. & Lei, J. L. (2001). Global construction of multicultural education: Theories and realities. Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum. Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., Battiato, A. C., Walker, J. M., Reed, R., Dejong, J. M., & Jones, K. P. (2001). Parental involvement in homework. Educational Psychologist, 36, 195-209. King, J. E., (1997) The purpose of schooling for African American children: Including cultural knowledge. In J. E. King, E. R. Hollins, & W. C. Hayman (Eds.), Preparing Teachers for Cultural Diversity. (pp. 25-56) New York: Teachers College Press. Ladson-Billings, G. (2005). Is the team all right? Journal of Teacher Education, 56, 229-234. Mandara, J. (2006). The impact of family functioning on African American males academic achievement: A review and clarification of the empirical literature. Teachers College Record, 108, 206-223. National Center for Education Statistics. (2001). Table 3-2A Percentage distribution of public school students enrolled in grades K-12 who were minorities, by region: October 1972-2000. In Racial/Ethnic distribution of public school students. Retrieved September 8, 03, from U.S. Department of Education Web Site http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/2002/section1/t03_2a.asp National Research Council. (2002). Minority students in special and gifted education. Committee on minority representation in special education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Olatunji, C. (2000). Culturally & developmentally appropriate interventions for the alternative school. In V. A. Anfara & P. C. Kirby (Eds.). Voices from the middle: Decrying what is, imploring what could be (pp. 137-162). Kendall-Hunt Publishers: Dubuque, IA. Porter DeCusati, C. L., & Johnson, J. E. (2004). Parents as classroom volunteers and kindergarten students’ emergent reading skills. Journal of Educational Research, 235-246. Riojas-Cortez, M. (2001). Preschoolers’ funds of knowledge displayed through sociodramatic play episodes in a bilingual classroom. Early Childhood Education Journal, 29, 35-40. Townsend, B. L. (2000). The disproportionate discipline of African American learners: Reducing school suspensions and expulsions. Exceptional Children, 66, 381-391. |
