ACADEMIC SUCCESS:

From Welfare to Professional Careers

A Paper Presented to

The African-American Success Foundation

November 3, 2001

By

Reva A. Thomas, M. S.

California School of Professional Psychology, Alameda

Alliant University

ACADEMIC SUCCESS:

From Welfare to Professional Careers

Introduction

Teen pregnancies continue to be a problem for unwed African-American girls. Many of them drop out of high school and receive welfare benefits to survive. They often live in poverty because of a lack of education and job skills. Only a few of these young girls are able to exit the welfare rolls and obtain a better life for them and their children.

This study examined the psychosocial development of professional African-American women who were previously adolescent single-parents on welfare.  It explored their motivations and how they successfully exited the welfare system, obtained their career aspirations, and accomplished post-graduate degrees and professional careers.

The overwhelming majority of women that exit the welfare program do so by taking advantage of vocational training programs or jobs that offer in-house training and advancements (e.g., telephone company, grocery stores, retail). A smaller number attend college and complete an Associate’s or Bachelor’s degree and obtain a job via this route. Very few members of this population continue to pursue post-graduate degrees. This study researched the life histories of women who surpassed traditional forms of advancement from the welfare system and pursued a post-graduate education.

This study explored the personal characteristics and intrinsic motivators that enabled these women to exit the welfare program. The study also explored the women’s self-efficacy and locus of control. It looked at their racial and ethnic identity, self-esteem and their current satisfaction with life. In addition, it investigated the attitudinal and behavioral strategies used by these women to obtain economic self-sufficiency. The emphasis of this study was on the case study approach and it investigated in-depth real life events, as the women told their own stories. 

This research answered the following general question:

What factors motivated these African-American women, who were adolescent single-parents previously on welfare, to persevere in pursuing a higher education, which made it possible for them to exit the welfare system, obtain their professional career aspirations, and become economically self-sufficient?     

The specific research questions were: 

1.      What attitudinal and behavioral strategies did these African-American women report using to achieve their professional career aspirations, and obtain economic self-sufficiency, given their educational and economic circumstances as an adolescent single-parent on welfare?

2.      How did these African-American women report being influenced by their social networks, mentors and significant others?

3.      What coping strategies did these African-American women report using to overcome barriers and obstacles?

Background Information: Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC)

The public assistance program of Aid to Families with Dependent Children  (AFDC) was implemented by the Social Security Act of 1935.  Originally called Aid to Dependent Children (ADC), the program was created to assist widowed mothers of young children whose fathers had died.  In 1961, the AFDC program was expanded to provide transitional financial assistance and benefits to families in need.  A family of need consisted of any family with a dependent child under the age of 18 who was deprived of parental support or care due to a parent's death, absence, incapacity, or unemployment.  Some of the benefits included cash grants, Medicaid, public housing, mental health services, food stamps, childcare and job training.

In 1994, 4,981,250 families, which represented over 13 million people, received assistance from AFDC. Of this number, two-thirds were children, over half were under the age of 5, and single female heads of household constituted a staggering 92.4% of the families.

In 1996, The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act shifted responsibility for designing and administering social programs from the federal to state and local governments. This implementation of the welfare reform initiative, Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) replaced the Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) program. It required states to put a significant number of their welfare recipients to work.  This welfare reform legislation included a lifetime welfare assistance limit of five years per family, and required adults in the family to find work within two years of receiving benefits.

Literature Review

A brief summary of the literature review showed that much of the current research on adolescent mothers who exited the welfare system focused specifically on external factors (family background, total family income and education level) and welfare policies (Harris, 1991; Piskulich, 1992). Harris (1991) studied the process by which adolescent mothers were able to work their way off of welfare. She conducted a longitudinal study and followed 288 adolescent mothers for 17 years.

She reported on two groups of women: one stayed on welfare because their jobs did not provide adequate wages in order for them to exit the system. The other eventually found an adequate job to exit welfare. She found that education, by far, was the most significant distinguishing factor between the two groups. The more educated women were able to attain better paying jobs; the high school dropouts entered the labor market but stayed on welfare longer because of their limited skills and training.

Kaplan (1997) studied a racially and culturally diverse group of undergraduate women and examined their recollections of the transitional processes from pre-adolescence through adolescence. The women felt the adolescent period was the most traumatic and a time of great stress.  All of the women were upper division students majoring in various disciplines. Kaplan (1997) concluded that these women’s academic achievement implied that they had prepared for their future careers during their adolescence.

Andujar (1994) used a life history approach, which asked the women to describe the process they used to acquire a higher education. From this she developed a four-factor model entitled, “The African-American Female’s Socialization for Success” (AAFSS). The four factors were: 1) significant other investor, 2) moral and religious values, 3) positive early school experience and 4) structural opportunity.

Bandura (1997) posited that the key factor of human agency was one’s belief of personal efficacy. When people believed that they had the power to make things happen, they often put more effort into making things happen. Conversely, it they felt they had no power to influence events, they often did not even try.

He further pointed out that locus of control and perceived self-efficacy were often mistakenly viewed as essentially the same phenomenon. However, the two concepts were completely different. He differentiated them by describing “locus of control” as the belief about whether one’s actions affect their outcomes and “perceived self-efficacy” as the belief about whether one can produce certain actions.

Leftcourt (1982) reported that an internal locus of control showed that the individual believed that they were responsible for the reinforcements they experienced and that their actions, characteristics, and qualities were determined by their experiences. An external locus of control showed that the person viewed their outcomes as being primarily determined by external forces, such as luck, social context, or other people. Similarly, Kulas’ (1996) research indicated that locus of control was established prior to adolescence and that it remained relatively stable during the period of adolescence.

Hackett and Byars (1996) conducted a selective review of the literature on the career development of African-American women, because of the “double jeopardy” of racism and sexism that they experienced. Their review placed great emphasis on Bandura’s (1986) self-efficacy theory. They found that a positive ethnic identity enabled women of color to distinguish the difference between biased performance feedback and accurate feedback, and that this enhanced their efficacy for coping with discrimination.

Barbarin (1991) explored the inner lives of African-American children. His results showed that a firm racial identity, combined with increased religiosity, had a favorable impact on socialization, thereby influencing self-esteem, self-efficacy and coping strategies.

Whaley (1993) reviewed the literature on cultural identity and self-esteem and their relationship to the psychosocial adjustment of African-American children. The studies showed that cultural identity appeared to be more influential in African-American children’s psychosocial adjustment; self-esteem and cultural identity were both subject to the same cognitive-developmental processes.

The literature review identified some of the psychosocial factors that played a role in influencing the outcome of this unique group of professional African-American women. Some of the factors identified were: attitudes, behavior, religion/spirituality, racial and ethnic identity, self-esteem, self-efficacy, locus of control, persistence and coping strategies.

As seen in the review of the literature, the transition from adolescence to adulthood for African-American women has been explored to some extent. A substantial amount of information is also known about the difficulties that mothers on welfare face. What was not known is how some African-American women were able to extricate themselves from the welfare system, go on to complete a graduate degree, achieve a professional career, and become economically self-sufficient.

Methodology

This study was both quantitative and qualitative. The research design for the quantitative portion of the study included all of the participants in the study (n= 78). The research design for the qualitative portion of the study consisted of four participants (n= 4), which came from the larger group of the seventy-eight participants.

The study was retrospective in that it explored the women's recall of the period from early childhood through adulthood. The study focused on their experiences of: 1) being an adolescent single-parent, 2) receiving public assistance, 3) exiting the welfare rolls, 4) navigating their way through the various hurdles of the world of academia, and 5) obtaining their professional careers.

Research Participants

The research participants were seventy-eight (78) African-American professional women from throughout the United States.  They ranged in age from 25 to 58 years old, with 42 as the average age. Every participant had been an adolescent single-parent previously on welfare. All of them were pregnant at age 18 or younger. At the time they became mothers, they ranged in age from 14 to 19 years old, with an average age of 17.

The number of months the participants received public assistance ranged from three months (1%), to two-hundred twenty-eight months (nineteen years) (1%), with an average of 56 months (four years and eight months).

Over three-fourths (75%) of the participants had earned their high school diplomas and 14% had completed the requirements for their GED.  All of the participants had completed a Master’s degree. Almost a third (29%) had completed a doctoral level degree. Of those with Master’s degrees, 21% of them were currently in school working on a doctoral degree.

Without including a spouse or significant other’s income, the participant’s salaries ranged from under $29,000 (4%) to over $150,000 annually (3%).  The information reported showed that over one-half of the participants earned over $50,000, more than one-fourth over $70,000, and 8% over $110,000. The median income was $50,000- $69,999.

Instruments

The Survey Questionnaire consisted of both closed-ended and open-ended questions. It was designed with questions to highlight the women’s lives from childhood to the present. The areas of coverage included: family of origin, childhood and early educational experiences, salient issues during the adolescent years, coping as an adolescent single-parent, career aspirations, higher education, and professional career.

It also explored the areas of self-esteem (The Self-Esteem Scale, Rosenberg, 1965) and life satisfaction (Life Satisfaction Scales, Neugarten, Havighurst, & Tobin, 1961). Participants concluded with suggestions they would have for African-American adolescent single-parents currently on welfare and for those that may desire to pursue a higher education.

The Self-Efficacy Scale (Sherer, 1982) and the Internal-External Locus of Control Scale (Rotter, 1966) test instruments were used to provide a rating of the strength of the self-efficacy and locus of control traits, to supplement the data. The Demographical Information Form was used to provide information about the participant’s family of origin, length of time on welfare, educational history and current family status. The Interview Guide and the Sample Interview Questions were both designed to focus more in-depth on the women’s life stories from childhood to the present.

Procedures

All seventy-eight participants (n= 78) completed a written survey questionnaire, assessment instruments, and a demographical information form. Four (n= 4) of the seventy-eight participants were individually interviewed in person. These four women were asked to respond to open-ended interview questions. The interviewer used a basic interview guide, but built upon and explored the women’s responses.  Each woman was able to tell her own story in her own way, in an "open ended" response format as well. This procedure allowed the women to authentically tell (and the interviewer to record) their unique stories (see Seidman, 1998).

Results

Research Questions

This dissertation asked the following general question: What factors motivated these African-American women, who were adolescent single-parents previously on welfare, to persevere in pursuing a higher education, which made it possible for them to exit the welfare system, obtain their professional career aspirations, and become economically self-sufficient?

Results revealed that well over three-quarters (86%) of the women reported that their motivations derived from their desire to provide a better life for their children. Filled with personal pride, these women were highly motivated to exit the welfare system to pursue their specific career aspirations and dreams. Their strong spiritual beliefs provided them with the foundation to persevere and achieve the goals they had set for themselves. They reported that being an adolescent single-parent was not easy for them.  They were confronted with racism and sexism, however, they had a large number of motivational resources that provided them the energy it took for them to persevere and successfully accomplish their goals.

Attitudinal and Behavioral Strategies. Virtually all (98%) of the women reported furthering their education and working, as two strategies they used to exit the welfare system. Some of the educational strategies they used included returning to school immediately, taking one course at a time, attending a community college, or taking night courses until they completed their degree(s). In addition, they worked part-time jobs while in school, requested extra work assignments to add to their skills, and completed their necessary internships.

Almost all (89%) of the women reported finding a mentor and learning how to network with others that shared similar goals. One respondent noted, “I began to network and associate with colleagues and friends who had the same philosophy that I aspired. I changed friends and my surroundings to make certain my dreams and aspirations would be realized.” They learned to become more flexible and this allowed them to open themselves up to new opportunities. The women reported moving from the negative environments in which they found themselves to more positive ones. In addition, when possible they attended college every summer and stayed focused on their goals.

Almost three-quarters (69%) of the women reported that they took advantage of the educational, financial, and public assistance resources offered to them and they developed personal goals with a plan of action. The educational and financial resources were specified as grants, financial aid, work-study, loans and fellowships, combined with welfare benefits. One respondent shared, “To get off welfare, I went to school full-time, earning a high school diploma, an A.A., a B.A., and an M.S.W. While attending school, I received financial aid, scholarships, fellowships, loans, worked part-time and lived in subsidized family-student housing.” The women stressed the importance of having both short and long-term goals with a plan to celebrate successes along the way.

Over half (64%) of the women indicated that they made plans and set obtainable goals. With their limited financial resources, they found it helpful to make a budget and follow it.  Another respondent recalled, “… raising three children… I had to learn to live on a very tight budget, which meant carefully planning meals, sewing my children’s clothes and buying carefully at resale shops. I had to be very disciplined with all of my resources, including my time and sheer physical energy.”

These women were inventive in finding ways to improve their skills, and even volunteered for extra work assignments while on the job. A respondent shared, “I took advantage of whatever benefits my job offered.” They went the extra mile and found internships and part-time jobs in areas that would lead them towards their future career aspirations.

Half (56%) of the women reported receiving support from their family members and mentors. The support they received from family and friends was invaluable, as they often provided them with a place to live and childcare assistance. With determination, a positive attitude, and patience, they were able to remain focused on their goals. They strongly believed that short-term sacrifices produced long-term gains. Having the personal motivation to succeed, they sought advice from their mentors.

Less than a fourth (22%) of the women reported that they explored job opportunities to see where their job could take them. They set themselves apart from others on job applications by emphasizing their unique qualities. They also visualized themselves in their career and used positive affirmations.

 They networked with others and surrounded themselves with positive people who also valued education. In addition, they relied heavily on their strong spiritual beliefs (e.g., use of prayer, faith in God, or higher spiritual power) to help them persevere. By becoming active in political, civic and professional organizations, they were also able to take part in improving their communities, a somewhat commonly shared aspiration.

Social Support.            In examining social networks, mentors and significant others, over half (53%) of the women reported receiving significant spiritual, emotional and financial support. They were also instrumental in keeping them motivated. Half (49%) of the women reported that they were provided with services such as childcare, and opportunities, which allowed them to envision a better life style. Observing others who were successful helped these women to believe that their goals were, in fact, worthwhile and attainable.

Almost half (45%) of the women expressed that their mentors were their role models. Having African-American role models helped them to believe in themselves. Two such influential role models, for example, included early childhood Sunday School teachers, and later college professors. One respondent stated, “ My mentors encouraged me to continue even through the difficult times.”

Almost half  (43%) of the women mentioned that their assistance came by way of encouragement and praise. In addition, their social networks explained to them how to navigate the maze of higher education, provided them with letters of recommendation, and used their influence and connections to assist them in getting internships and jobs.  A respondent stated, “My undergraduate professor encouraged me to go on and pursue a graduate degree… I got in [to] grad school because he made a telephone call one Sunday night to the head of the department. I got a research assistantship based on that telephone call.”

Slightly under half (42%) of the women relayed that their significant others, family and friends gave them a shoulder to cry on, and helped them deal with personal issues and provided them with continuous encouragement. Another respondent stated, “My ex-husband was my biggest cheerleader. He would always celebrate my successes and encourage me to do it!” However, this was not always the case, as even another respondent reported, “My significant others were not very helpful since they were not trying to achieve the same goals.”

One third (35%) of the women acknowledged that their assistance came by way of helping them to keep on track and persevere, and through the use of prayer. One respondent revealed, “Prayer and ongoing encouragement and support. Most of them would say, you can do it! Don’t quit!”

Surprisingly, another response reported by eleven percent (11%) of the women pointed toward the positive influence of the African-American women of their lineage. They expressed respect for the strength, perseverance, independence, commitment and character of these living predecessors. Another respondent commented, “ I think it was the women in my family that had the most influence upon me. There is a positive character that I took from each one of them that I admired and took or assimilated to develop my individual character.”

Coping Strategies.  Almost all (86%) of the women reported that the use of prayer and talking to their mentors and friends helped them to cope with barriers and obstacles they experienced. They called upon their strong faith in God or their higher spiritual power to help them through the difficult times. They met with their mentors regularly to discuss their struggles, and sought out other people of color for support. They also made friends with other single mothers who were pursuing the same goals. One respondent remarked, “To cope with the overwhelming stress of single, adolescent parenthood … I had many close friends who encouraged me along the way.”

Almost all (83%) of the women reported that they set goals they knew they could achieve with time and effort. Knowing their limits, they carefully picked their battles. Their determination was often used as a shield to thwart the obstacles, which came their way. With their “eye on the prize” they forged ahead with their studies, doggedly persistent about obtaining their goal. Because they believed that “winners never quit,” they persevered toward reaching their goals. When discouraged, they reported that it helped when they changed negative thinking to positive thoughts. They were then able to realize that they had come too far to turn back. They proceeded ahead tenaciously, with the belief that things would work out for them. With strong conviction, they knew there was a solution for every circumstance. They believed that they could overcome any obstacle.

These women indicated that some of the helpful positive behavioral strategies they used included: fun activities with their children, bubble baths with candles, walking, aerobics, swimming, dancing, camping, exercise, reading, and tennis. They also reported that meditation, positive affirmations, journal writing, and listening to specific lyrics from songs, helped them feel empowered. The following is what one respondent had to say, “I would listen to my theme song, Ain’t No Stopping Us Now. It was very motivating and encouraging to me. It was empowering - I would sing it in my head. Sometimes it was an ‘in your face song’ like … you’re not going to stop me!”  

Half (50%) of the women found that talking to family members and friends about their difficulties provided them with invaluable assistance and encouragement. They found it helpful to speak to others who had already overcome the same barriers and obstacles, which they were attempting to vanquish. At times they received psychological counseling/therapy to assist them in dealing with their personal issues. Another respondent confessed, “I had counseling in my junior year of college because I never addressed the pain associated with having a baby so young.”

The women also divulged that there were times when they resorted to maladaptive behaviors to cope with the difficulties that came their way. Some of these self-defeating behaviors included drug and alcohol abuse, isolation from others, involvement in dysfunctional relationships, eating and sleep disorders, and workaholic and perfectionist behavior. With the realization that the addictions and behaviors interfered with the attainment of their goals, they sought professional assistance. Those with substance abuse addictions attended 12-step programs, such as Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and Narcotics Anonymous (NA).  They attended meetings regularly for support. A respondent recalled, “My using substances which I thought helped me to cope was my biggest obstacle. Going to a twenty-eight day treatment program was the catalyst that changed my life completely.”

Others pointed to the strengths of their ancestors, and spoke of how they learned to deal with obstacles and adversities from them. One respondent remembered, “Overcoming barriers was what I witnessed women in my family do all of the time. Using 'your wits', bargaining, 'one-step ahead' philosophies are strategies I now recognize as being part of my heritage.”

Discussion

Strengths and Limitations

A strength of this study was the criteria for the participants. It was very specific and this contributed to better homogeneity of the group being studied (e.g., participants met all 5 criteria). Another strength was the matching of the examiner and the participants regarding ethnicity, gender and personal history on the five criteria. This match provided a rich base for the probing of what might have been considered privy information.

The self-selected group of research participants and the unique population being studied may have limited the study. The women who agreed to participate by sharing their life stories and personal experiences may have been systematically different from those who chose not to participate.  How they differed is unknown.  Therefore, these cases should not be considered representative of all former African-American adolescent single-parent mothers, who were previous recipients of public assistance, who completed a post-graduate education and obtained a professional career.

Clinical Relevance of the Study

The data on this unique sample is of value to clinicians, educators, and welfare policy makers. In addition, the results of this study can further be utilized by those responsible for empowering individuals by increasing their self-efficacy beliefs and feelings of internal locus of control (e.g., parents, elementary school teachers, church and community leaders, mentors, professors, employers, and other support systems).

Implications for Clinical Psychologists

            Clinicians can gain an enhanced understanding of what is needed to assist these young mothers in terms of increasing their self-efficacy and internal locus of control. By identifying their problematic cognitions and behaviors they can strengthen their existing coping skills.  The clinicians can also develop more effective models to use, in order to empower young women in similar circumstances to successfully exit welfare and become economically self sufficient. More specifically, this dissertation suggests that clinicians should facilitate the development of social supports for single-parents on public assistance, and to develop therapeutic approaches that include these social networks in the therapeutic endeavor.

Implications for Educators

Strategies to achieve academic success and economic self-sufficiency are needed by educators, who are responsible for implementing educational programs aimed at elevating the academic achievement and educational levels of adolescent mothers. This study increased the body of knowledge about African-American students who have excelled in school and aided in the replication of that success for others, as it explored the attitudinal and behavioral contributors involved in academic success.

Implications for Public Policy

            To dramatically improve public policy, the policy makers have needed more relevant information to maximize welfare exits and create more effective models and programs. This information is beneficial to welfare policy makers so they can better understand the connections between the individuals and the policies that they are attempting to reform (Piskulich, 1992).

For several years, and more recently legislation leading to the New Welfare Reform Bill of 1996, state and federal governments have been disturbed by the increasing numbers of individuals remaining on public assistance (Piskulich, 1992).  Piskulich (1992) noted that research had focused on what was wrong with the welfare system, however, limited emphasis had been placed on examining the characteristics of those who had successfully exited the welfare system.

Previous research has not focused on the subjective experiences of these young women, such as, their internal and external conflicts, motivations, barriers they experienced and how they overcame them. This study described their subjective experiences and explored their interrelationships.

Welfare mothers have traditionally exited the welfare system through a variety of avenues. Some married, others worked minimum wage jobs, participated in work training programs, or went to college. Currently, “The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act ” of The New Welfare Reform Bill (1996), has specific guidelines and criteria. This Bill purports to make it possible for the welfare reform “to uniformly exit” all recipients from public assistance. To better maximize welfare system exits, the welfare reform program can now look at the specific data of the characteristics shared in common by those who successfully exited the welfare system. As these characteristics are identified, the specific characteristics of each individual adolescent mother could be explored to determine which ones match the characteristics of those that successfully exited the welfare system (without recidivism).

The welfare program would have a “fair and systematic” way of enabling the women to exit the welfare system. It would allow each mother to choose her own path to self-sufficiency, whether it is through marriage, minimum wage jobs, work training programs, or college. For those who desire a college education, this data might also differentiate between those who aspire to obtain an Associate’s or Bachelor’s degree, and those who want to persevere and achieve a Master’s or Doctorate degree. This would be a more humanistic and effective method, rather than the current  "one size fits all" approach to welfare exits proposed by The New Welfare Reform Bill of 1996.

Suggestions for Future Research

            A future study might explore the differences between former African-American adolescent single-parents that chose to obtain post-graduate degrees and professional careers, with those who did not. Other studies that might yield equally useful information might include studies of women and men from other races, ethnicities and sub-cultures who have successfully exited the welfare system and obtained post-graduate degrees and professional careers after having been an adolescent single-parent.

Summary and Conclusions

Although on the decline, adolescent pregnancies continue to be a problem for young, unwed African-American girls. Much of the literature that has been written about the cycle of poverty has shown that children born to adolescent mothers are most likely born in poverty, grow up in poverty, and raise their own children in poverty. Musick (1993) suggested that closer attention be paid to what it takes to bring about personal change to improve the lives of poor adolescent girls and their children. These adolescent mothers require increased research and clinical attention.

Through personal stories, this study contributed to an understanding of how African-American women who were adolescent mothers on welfare have broken the cycle of poverty, transcended the odds of their circumstances, achieved economic self-sufficiency, and academic and professional success. Those currently in the welfare system can replicate the steps taken by these former participants.

In conclusion, the labor market of the future is an uncertain place, especially for African-Americans. African-Americans are challenged by welfare reform, government and corporate downsizing, increasing international competition and rapid technological changes. The data from these real life experiences are beneficial for individuals seeking specific strategies to obtain academic success, which leads towards economic self-sufficiency.

There is a need to elevate the academic success and educational levels of all segments of our nation. We can inspire young children to formulate “dreams” for their future. We can help them believe that they can turn “their dreams” into realities. We can also provide them with the vision and inspiration that they can attend college, including graduate school. This will empower them to achieve their best and their future dreams and career aspirations. We know a mind is a terrible thing to waste but “a dream unfulfilled is a life not lived to its fullest.“

Correspondence regarding this research study may be sent to:

Reva A. Thomas, 150 Mohave Terrace, Fremont, CA 94539 or e-mail Rreva@aol.com

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